University of Isfahan Textual Criticism of Persian Literature 2476-3268 15 2 2023 06 22 Manifestation of the Knowledge of ‘Properties of Elements’ in Persian Mythological and Allegorical Stories (Relying on Nozhat Nameh Alaei, Ajayeb almakhluqat, Javaher Nameh Nezami, and Al Abniyeh an Haqayeq Al Adviyeh) Manifestation of the Knowledge of ‘Properties of Elements’ in Persian Mythological and Allegorical Stories (Relying on Nozhat Nameh Alaei, Ajayeb almakhluqat, Javaher Nameh Nezami, and Al Abniyeh an Haqayeq Al Adviyeh) 1 16 27593 10.22108/rpll.2023.136744.2199 FA Masumeh Samkhaniani PhD Graduate of Persian Language and Literature, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran Jamileh Akhyani Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran Journal Article 2023 02 07 Abstract One of the most common motives for ancient magic and medicine was the belief in mysterious properties of the universe element. Believers of this knowledge would investigate the universe’s elements (from animal body parts to numbers and letters), their properties, and their effects on universe creatures and phenomena. They used their findings in various fields such as medicine, fortune-telling, dream interpretation, weather forecasting, Alchemy, magic, and talisman. These beliefs were also manifested in ordinary people’s life and ideology which is traceable in the context of their contemporary stories. The mysterious nature of some of the Persian stories can be also attributed to this knowledge. Adventures such as Simorgh and his magical and therapeutic actions, Rostam's battle with Div-e Sepid, Key Khosrow's magical actions, etc. are among the mythological stories in Shahnameh, in which the beliefs related to this knowledge have had a significant reflection. In the present study, we shed new light on the topic based on parallel texts, along with mythological and allegorical stories such as Nozhat Nameh Alaei, Ajayeb almakhluqat, Javaher Nameh Nezami and AlAbniyeh an Haqaqeyeq AlAdviyeh. These works contain information about the mysterious properties of elements. From this point of view, literary works written in two genres of magic and common medicine were analyzed in relation to four categories of animals, plants, stones/metals, and noises/voices. We also tried to show the roots of some of these magical, scientific, and folklore practices. Introduction In the present study, ‘knowledge of elements’ is discussed, which is one of the important aspects of ancient beliefs. This knowledge can be defined as the mysterious effect of things on each other for which there is no logical reason whose manifestations are reflected in various parts of the life of ancient people. In this belief, all the elements of existence, from human and animal body parts to celestial bodies and numbers and letters, have hidden properties that knowing them can be used to perform extraordinary works or even to solve people's daily problems. Belief in the hidden properties of objects has played an important role in ancient human thought: in folk medicine, veterinary medicine, agriculture, dyeing, glassmaking, perfumery, and practices such as spells, witchcraft, and similar works. Many works about this knowledge have been left, which can be mentioned in order in the books Khavass-e Belinas, Khavass ol-Hayavan of Aristotle, Khavass-e Mavazin of Jaber ben Hayyan and Nozhat Nameh Alaei (an encyclopedia on properties) of Shahmardan. Our emphasis has been on using some Persian scientific and pseudo-scientific texts that have a collection of information related to the mentioned knowledge, to reach the important and key common beliefs of ancient times and to understand the literary texts through. The creators of literary works have never lived apart from the common people and literate elites and their beliefs. Most of the ancient Persian writers are called sages, which is proof of their knowledge and study in the common sciences of their time, and traces of their knowledge and beliefs can be found in their works. Materials and Methods In order to carry out this research, we have collected all kinds of hidden properties of creatures from among sources such as Nozhat Nameh Alaei, Ajayeb almakhluqat, Javaher Nameh Nezami, and Al-Abniyyeh on the facts of medicine. We have included their applications in the two parts of medicine and witchcraft, because people have dealt with these two types of techniques on a daily basis, and their scholars have always practiced healing or witchcraft based on the properties of each element in existence. In each section, we placed relevant information in four categories: Animals, Plants, Stones and Metals, and Sound/Song. In each category, we narrated some mythological and allegorical stories with their different narratives from texts such as Shahnameh, Marzban Nameh, Kalileh va Demneh, and Haft Peykar. At the same time, we referred to the relevant parallel texts. Then, by describing and analyzing the beliefs related to the knowledge of elements in each story, we showed how a common theme was reflected in two different contexts. Research Findings Based on the results of the present study, in the belief of the ancients, which is rooted in hermetic beliefs, the phenomena of existence have special properties that no one is able to know and recognize. The scientists of this field used their knowledge to advance their own goals or that of their rulers, and for this reason, they were mysterious and sometimes terrifying or holy figures in the society who had a set of witchcraft and healing in them. A clear example of them can be seen in personalities such as Zal, Key Khosrow, Rostam, and Esfandiyar. It seems that these last two characters were actually faced with seven stages of magic in their Haft Khans, and to overcome them, they had to be familiar with magic. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Throughout the study, we showed that the belief in the knowledge of the hidden properties of objects was very strong among the ancients and reflected in all aspects of their lives, including formal and informal sciences, medicine and magic, alchemy, mathematics, stories, and daily life. This issue shows the importance of paying attention to the philosophy of life, worldview, and the type of attitude of the individual towards himself and the world around him in every era. Therefore, for a more accurate understanding of literary works, it is necessary to pay attention to the parallel scientific and pseudo-scientific texts of each period along with the study of literary texts. Abstract One of the most common motives for ancient magic and medicine was the belief in mysterious properties of the universe element. Believers of this knowledge would investigate the universe’s elements (from animal body parts to numbers and letters), their properties, and their effects on universe creatures and phenomena. They used their findings in various fields such as medicine, fortune-telling, dream interpretation, weather forecasting, Alchemy, magic, and talisman. These beliefs were also manifested in ordinary people’s life and ideology which is traceable in the context of their contemporary stories. The mysterious nature of some of the Persian stories can be also attributed to this knowledge. Adventures such as Simorgh and his magical and therapeutic actions, Rostam's battle with Div-e Sepid, Key Khosrow's magical actions, etc. are among the mythological stories in Shahnameh, in which the beliefs related to this knowledge have had a significant reflection. In the present study, we shed new light on the topic based on parallel texts, along with mythological and allegorical stories such as Nozhat Nameh Alaei, Ajayeb almakhluqat, Javaher Nameh Nezami and AlAbniyeh an Haqaqeyeq AlAdviyeh. These works contain information about the mysterious properties of elements. From this point of view, literary works written in two genres of magic and common medicine were analyzed in relation to four categories of animals, plants, stones/metals, and noises/voices. We also tried to show the roots of some of these magical, scientific, and folklore practices. Introduction In the present study, ‘knowledge of elements’ is discussed, which is one of the important aspects of ancient beliefs. This knowledge can be defined as the mysterious effect of things on each other for which there is no logical reason whose manifestations are reflected in various parts of the life of ancient people. In this belief, all the elements of existence, from human and animal body parts to celestial bodies and numbers and letters, have hidden properties that knowing them can be used to perform extraordinary works or even to solve people's daily problems. Belief in the hidden properties of objects has played an important role in ancient human thought: in folk medicine, veterinary medicine, agriculture, dyeing, glassmaking, perfumery, and practices such as spells, witchcraft, and similar works. Many works about this knowledge have been left, which can be mentioned in order in the books Khavass-e Belinas, Khavass ol-Hayavan of Aristotle, Khavass-e Mavazin of Jaber ben Hayyan and Nozhat Nameh Alaei (an encyclopedia on properties) of Shahmardan. Our emphasis has been on using some Persian scientific and pseudo-scientific texts that have a collection of information related to the mentioned knowledge, to reach the important and key common beliefs of ancient times and to understand the literary texts through. The creators of literary works have never lived apart from the common people and literate elites and their beliefs. Most of the ancient Persian writers are called sages, which is proof of their knowledge and study in the common sciences of their time, and traces of their knowledge and beliefs can be found in their works. Materials and Methods In order to carry out this research, we have collected all kinds of hidden properties of creatures from among sources such as Nozhat Nameh Alaei, Ajayeb almakhluqat, Javaher Nameh Nezami, and Al-Abniyyeh on the facts of medicine. We have included their applications in the two parts of medicine and witchcraft, because people have dealt with these two types of techniques on a daily basis, and their scholars have always practiced healing or witchcraft based on the properties of each element in existence. In each section, we placed relevant information in four categories: Animals, Plants, Stones and Metals, and Sound/Song. In each category, we narrated some mythological and allegorical stories with their different narratives from texts such as Shahnameh, Marzban Nameh, Kalileh va Demneh, and Haft Peykar. At the same time, we referred to the relevant parallel texts. Then, by describing and analyzing the beliefs related to the knowledge of elements in each story, we showed how a common theme was reflected in two different contexts. Research Findings Based on the results of the present study, in the belief of the ancients, which is rooted in hermetic beliefs, the phenomena of existence have special properties that no one is able to know and recognize. The scientists of this field used their knowledge to advance their own goals or that of their rulers, and for this reason, they were mysterious and sometimes terrifying or holy figures in the society who had a set of witchcraft and healing in them. A clear example of them can be seen in personalities such as Zal, Key Khosrow, Rostam, and Esfandiyar. It seems that these last two characters were actually faced with seven stages of magic in their Haft Khans, and to overcome them, they had to be familiar with magic. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Throughout the study, we showed that the belief in the knowledge of the hidden properties of objects was very strong among the ancients and reflected in all aspects of their lives, including formal and informal sciences, medicine and magic, alchemy, mathematics, stories, and daily life. This issue shows the importance of paying attention to the philosophy of life, worldview, and the type of attitude of the individual towards himself and the world around him in every era. Therefore, for a more accurate understanding of literary works, it is necessary to pay attention to the parallel scientific and pseudo-scientific texts of each period along with the study of literary texts.

https://rpll.ui.ac.ir/article_27593_49ed14d3e4a1c4f7e1408fb7b1535c3d.pdf

University of Isfahan Textual Criticism of Persian Literature 2476-3268 15 2 2023 06 22 Mowlavi’s Approaches and Methods of Hyperbole in Masnavi Mowlavi’s Approaches and Methods of Hyperbole in Masnavi 17 36 27553 10.22108/rpll.2023.136054.2168 FA Seyyed Naser Jaberi Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran Mijahed Gholami Assistant Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran Journal Article 2022 12 13 Abstract What is mentioned in the rhetorical writings about the term ‘Hyperbole’ is mainly limited to the customary and rational classification of exaggeration into Mobaleghe, Eghragh, and Gholov. These contents do not properly express the importance of this rhetorical term. The present descriptive-analytical study aims to investigate Maulavi's approaches to creating hyperbole in Masnavi by means of verbs, dimensions, and sizes (numbers). The results show that in terms of ‘Verbs’, figurative attribution is one of the most used means and artistic forms of creating hyperbole in Masnavi, especially because it is directly connected with contrast and contradiction and other literary aesthetic issues. In terms of ‘Size’ and ‘Number’, it is shown which numbers and sizes were effective in creating hyperbole in Masnavi. In terms of ‘dimensions’, what can be seen is that hyperboles are made in two ways in Masnavi: space hyperboles and time hyperboles. These types of hyperbole are the most used types in Masnavi with many examples in this book. Finally, another method of using hyperbole is to use plural signs, for example, the sign ‘Ha’ (in Persian grammar), and also the use of double plural-made words, in a non-normative way. Based on these explanations, it can be said that Maulana (604-672 AH) is very interested in making hyperbole. By using various types of hyperbole in his poems, he makes mystical thoughts and views effective and acceptable. Introduction Hyperbole has been used throughout literature for many centuries. Heroic dramas, which are dramas with an emphasis on grandeur and excess, often make use of hyperbole to extend the effect and epic nature of the genre. In the history of Persian literature, a lot of hyperbole is used in Mowlavi’s poems. It is possible to look at hyperbole only from an artistic point of view and conclude that every poet who has used it better is more skilled and capable than other poets. Hyperbole can also be considered a measure of violating realism and distancing from the truth. Based on this thought, it may be concluded that poetry should not be considered as the measure of thought because the most beautiful poems are the most false ones (i.e. those containing literary ornaments). In this regard, this study aims to investigate types of linguistic and vocabulary methods used to create hyperbole by Maulana Jalal ol-Din in Masnavi. Materials and Methods The current research is a descriptive-analytical one. The hypothesis of the authors has been that Masnavi is a unique work in terms of the use of hyperbole. To collect the data, the verses of Masnavi have been examined with a focus on places where the hyperbole was created. The scope of the research was only three volumes from the beginning of Masnavi. But if necessary, examples in the other volumes of Masnavi and Ghazaliat Shams have been used as a supplement and confirmation of the mentioned words. Research Findings Based on the results of the study, some of the important elements in creating hyperbole in Mowlavi's Masnavi are as follows: Number: The number plays an important role in the hyperboles of Masnavi and other works of Mowlavi. In fact, the number can cause exaggeration in the quantity in various ways. Mowlavi has used numbers such as half, one, two, seven, ten, twenty, hundred, and thousand to create hyperbole. Until now, a lot has been said about the use of the number ‘seven’ and its mythological and symbolic meaning. Mowlavi has used more numbers to create hyperbole and he has done it skillfully. This is the difference between Mowlavi's art and others in this field. Dimensions: Another characteristic of Mowlavi's poetry is the creation of hyperbole in capacity and in the dimensions of space and time. For example, "a small particle that hides the sun inside" etc. Another type of hyperbole is the hyperbole of distance. In this type of hyperbole, the word focuses on large distances, distances like "from earth to sky" and similar examples. Hyperbole with Plural Words and Signs: Creating hyperbole by using ‘plural signs’ is one of Rumi's methods. In addition, he has used plural words that have become plural again (i.e. Jam ol-Jam). Also, Mowlavi has used the sign ‘ha’ (a common plural sign for nouns in Persian grammar) a lot in Masnavi. He usually uses singular words in the plural form and in this way creates hyperbole. This is the artistic habit of Rumi. In the end, it can be said that Mowlavi has a great ability to create hyperbole and accomplishes it in various ways. However, this issue and the reflection of this valuable rhetorical term in Mowlavi's poems have not been seriously considered. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Hyperbole is one of the most widely recognized and used forms of figurative language in everyday life. It is used heavily in advertising and entertainment. Advertisers use hyperbole to exaggerate the benefits of products to boost sales. Repetitive hyperbole is used in public relations to increase the popularity of a person or product. It is also used in propaganda, giving it a bad reputation. Based on old writings in the history of Persian and Arabic rhetoric, previous writers have often defined hyperbole in connection with adjectives and considered it as an exaggeration in the description. But it can be said that other factors and elements are also effective in creating hyperbole. Hyperbole has been more deeply researched in rhetorical works in the contemporary period. However, there is no complete definition for it in contemporary sources. But good ideas have been formed about forms and aesthetic criteria of hyperbole. In the past, writers with a focus on the meaning divided hyperbole into three categories: Mobalegheh, Eghragh, and Gholov. Some contemporary writers, with a focus on structure, divided hyperbole into three categories: expressive, epic, and figurative. Abstract What is mentioned in the rhetorical writings about the term ‘Hyperbole’ is mainly limited to the customary and rational classification of exaggeration into Mobaleghe, Eghragh, and Gholov. These contents do not properly express the importance of this rhetorical term. The present descriptive-analytical study aims to investigate Maulavi's approaches to creating hyperbole in Masnavi by means of verbs, dimensions, and sizes (numbers). The results show that in terms of ‘Verbs’, figurative attribution is one of the most used means and artistic forms of creating hyperbole in Masnavi, especially because it is directly connected with contrast and contradiction and other literary aesthetic issues. In terms of ‘Size’ and ‘Number’, it is shown which numbers and sizes were effective in creating hyperbole in Masnavi. In terms of ‘dimensions’, what can be seen is that hyperboles are made in two ways in Masnavi: space hyperboles and time hyperboles. These types of hyperbole are the most used types in Masnavi with many examples in this book. Finally, another method of using hyperbole is to use plural signs, for example, the sign ‘Ha’ (in Persian grammar), and also the use of double plural-made words, in a non-normative way. Based on these explanations, it can be said that Maulana (604-672 AH) is very interested in making hyperbole. By using various types of hyperbole in his poems, he makes mystical thoughts and views effective and acceptable. Introduction Hyperbole has been used throughout literature for many centuries. Heroic dramas, which are dramas with an emphasis on grandeur and excess, often make use of hyperbole to extend the effect and epic nature of the genre. In the history of Persian literature, a lot of hyperbole is used in Mowlavi’s poems. It is possible to look at hyperbole only from an artistic point of view and conclude that every poet who has used it better is more skilled and capable than other poets. Hyperbole can also be considered a measure of violating realism and distancing from the truth. Based on this thought, it may be concluded that poetry should not be considered as the measure of thought because the most beautiful poems are the most false ones (i.e. those containing literary ornaments). In this regard, this study aims to investigate types of linguistic and vocabulary methods used to create hyperbole by Maulana Jalal ol-Din in Masnavi. Materials and Methods The current research is a descriptive-analytical one. The hypothesis of the authors has been that Masnavi is a unique work in terms of the use of hyperbole. To collect the data, the verses of Masnavi have been examined with a focus on places where the hyperbole was created. The scope of the research was only three volumes from the beginning of Masnavi. But if necessary, examples in the other volumes of Masnavi and Ghazaliat Shams have been used as a supplement and confirmation of the mentioned words. Research Findings Based on the results of the study, some of the important elements in creating hyperbole in Mowlavi's Masnavi are as follows: Number: The number plays an important role in the hyperboles of Masnavi and other works of Mowlavi. In fact, the number can cause exaggeration in the quantity in various ways. Mowlavi has used numbers such as half, one, two, seven, ten, twenty, hundred, and thousand to create hyperbole. Until now, a lot has been said about the use of the number ‘seven’ and its mythological and symbolic meaning. Mowlavi has used more numbers to create hyperbole and he has done it skillfully. This is the difference between Mowlavi's art and others in this field. Dimensions: Another characteristic of Mowlavi's poetry is the creation of hyperbole in capacity and in the dimensions of space and time. For example, "a small particle that hides the sun inside" etc. Another type of hyperbole is the hyperbole of distance. In this type of hyperbole, the word focuses on large distances, distances like "from earth to sky" and similar examples. Hyperbole with Plural Words and Signs: Creating hyperbole by using ‘plural signs’ is one of Rumi's methods. In addition, he has used plural words that have become plural again (i.e. Jam ol-Jam). Also, Mowlavi has used the sign ‘ha’ (a common plural sign for nouns in Persian grammar) a lot in Masnavi. He usually uses singular words in the plural form and in this way creates hyperbole. This is the artistic habit of Rumi. In the end, it can be said that Mowlavi has a great ability to create hyperbole and accomplishes it in various ways. However, this issue and the reflection of this valuable rhetorical term in Mowlavi's poems have not been seriously considered. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Hyperbole is one of the most widely recognized and used forms of figurative language in everyday life. It is used heavily in advertising and entertainment. Advertisers use hyperbole to exaggerate the benefits of products to boost sales. Repetitive hyperbole is used in public relations to increase the popularity of a person or product. It is also used in propaganda, giving it a bad reputation. Based on old writings in the history of Persian and Arabic rhetoric, previous writers have often defined hyperbole in connection with adjectives and considered it as an exaggeration in the description. But it can be said that other factors and elements are also effective in creating hyperbole. Hyperbole has been more deeply researched in rhetorical works in the contemporary period. However, there is no complete definition for it in contemporary sources. But good ideas have been formed about forms and aesthetic criteria of hyperbole. In the past, writers with a focus on the meaning divided hyperbole into three categories: Mobalegheh, Eghragh, and Gholov. Some contemporary writers, with a focus on structure, divided hyperbole into three categories: expressive, epic, and figurative.

https://rpll.ui.ac.ir/article_27553_5e6b3aa0bc29feead38f10e71c436343.pdf

University of Isfahan Textual Criticism of Persian Literature 2476-3268 15 2 2023 06 22 Vocabulary and Indian Culture in the Persian Poems of Mukhlis Lahori Vocabulary and Indian Culture in the Persian Poems of Mukhlis Lahori 37 55 27552 10.22108/rpll.2023.135182.2146 FA Somayeh Shokri Student, Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities, Islamic Azad University, Kashan Branch, Kashan, Isfahan. Iran. Mohamad Rastgoo Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, Kashan University, Kashan, Isfahan, Iran Saeed Kheirkhah Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities, Islamic Azad University, Kashan Branch, Kashan, Isfahan Journal Article 2022 10 04 Abstract Rai Rayan Anand Ram Lahori (1107-1164 A.H.), known as ‘Mukhlis’, is one of India's great Hindu poets and writers. Apart from Diwan poems, his important writings in various fields of lexicography, biography writing, chronicle writing, memoir writing, and travelogue writing have been left by him. Mukhlis’ Diwan is a collection of his Persian poems and Rekhta, manuscripts of which are kept in Reza Library (Rampur, India), Moulana Azad Library (Aligarh, India), and British Museum Library (London), and the authors have corrected it and added notes on it. In his Diwan, there is the use of some Indian words that are less common in other people's poems, as well as the use of some Persian and Arabic words with a meaning other than what is common in Iranian Persian, and the reflection of some Indian customs. In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate and report the reflection of such words and rituals in the Mukhlis’ poems and to answer the question of how much India and the Indian culture is reflected in the Persian poems of this Persian-speaking Indian Hindu poet. This research is applied in the direction of lexicography, cultural research, and lexicology in the Indian and Persian languages and literature. Introduction Rai Rayan Anand Ram Lahori, mostly referred to as "Anand Ram Mukhlis" in the books of biography and history, was sometimes separated from Mukhlis Kashani by the name of Mukhlis Lahori. In poetry, he was a student of Mirza Abdul Qadir Bedil (d. 1720) - the pinnacle of Indian style - and also one of the students and then one of the very close friends and companions of Siraj ul Din Ali Khan Arezoo (d. 1756) - a well-known Indian poet, writer, and scientist. He had strong ties with other poets and scientists of his time, especially Hazin Lahiji (d. 1766 AD). His works are Diwan Poems, Mirat ul Istelah, Chamanistan Sokhn, Roqaat, Karname Eshgh, Hangameh Eshgh, Pari Khane, Badaye va Vaqaye, Tazkerat ul Shoara, Savane ul Ahval, Rahat ul Afras. Mukhlis’ Diwan is a collection of Persian poems written by him. His compositions include 500 sonnets, 150 quatrains, several historical articles with historical values, and several scattered verses in the Urdu language. It is no wonder a poet like Mukhlis, whose mother language and culture are Indian, and Persian language and culture is his second language and culture, sometimes uses the words of his native language in his Persian poems, especially where his words are inspired by his native culture. It is on this basis that not only Indian Persian speakers but also Iranian Persian speakers who went to India, sometimes used Indian words in their compositions. However, some people did not like this work and did not consider it correct, and this point of view became the subject of debates about the legitimacy or wrongness of this method. Khan Arezoo made the twenty-seventh chapter of his book Mosmer for this special discussion and issued a fatwa on its authenticity. However, he considered it to be too much and he considered excesses to be unacceptable (Mosmer, p. 153). As he spoke in 28 chapters about the manipulations of Persian speakers in Indian vocabulary and Mukhlis, who is Arezoo's student, he repeated the teacher's fatwa in Mirat ul Istelah and considered the injustice to be characteristic of unripe and novices: Some loved ones believe that it is not right to use Indian words in Persian poems, don’t accept; because these things are straiting (sic.) for the unbelievers and beginners, and the people of power and talent are free... (Mukhlis-Lahori, p. 418, 447) Based on this belief, Mukhlis used Indian words in his poems without going too far, especially in places where his speech was based on Indian culture and there was no word to express it in Persian. Apart from these, there are some Persian words in his speech that are either not used in Iranian Persian or are used in other meanings; therefore, they can be misleading and deceptive for Iranians. It should be mentioned that such usages also arose from the fact that Persian is his second language and not from the language of ordinary people, i.e. the original speakers, who learned more from books and the language of poets and writers, and this is the background to Persian in vocabulary. Also, in the structure, sometimes changes are found in Iranian Farsi. The transformations open the way for protest and criticism of some Persian writers and on the other hand, some consider him innocent in these transformations. Because whoever learns the language not by hearing and from the language of normal and common speakers, but by analogy and from books and diwan, will inevitably undergo some transformations. Since there is no space to examine this debate here, we will leave it in its place and skip it by mentioning a report by Khan Arezoo in Mosmer: Some of the poets of India said to one of the poets of Iran: Mullah! You have learned Farsi from your elders and your teachers like Khaqani and Anwari (Arezoo, p. 31). Materials and Methods: In this research, our main sources are the manuscripts of Diwan Mukhlis of Lahore. We have given the complete and correct definitions of these words in three different sections (i.e. Indian vocabulary, Farsi or Arabic words with different or unusual meanings, and Indian customs after extracting Indian or Persian and Arabic words that have different and unusual meanings using inductive and library methods, especially using dictionaries and words. Research Findings The results of the study show that sometimes the same words have different meanings in two different languages, and this issue has been evident in the Diwan of Mukhlis Lahori. The traces of the poet's native language and native culture are always evident in writing poetry in a second language, and this is also the case in the Diwan of Mukhlis Lahori. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that: Mukhlis Lahori, a Persian-speaking Indian Hindu, one of the worthy students of Bedil Dehlavi and Khan Arezoo, was a capable poet and writer who has made the Persian language and culture forever indebted to him with the useful and important works he created in various fields. Since he is sincerely Hindu and Indian when he composes and writes in Farsi, consciously or unconsciously, he takes advantage of his native words and culture and puts them in his Farsi poems. Since Indian Farsi has differences from Iranian Farsi and Mukhlis learned Persian mostly from Persian texts and not from natives of Iran. Sometimes in his words, he uses words that are characteristic of literary and ancient Persian texts and in standard Persian. Iranians do not use these words in everyday language There are differences in the meanings of some words in Persian and Hindi, thus knowledge is necessary for a better understanding of the sincere poetry of Lahori and his contemporaries. Abstract Rai Rayan Anand Ram Lahori (1107-1164 A.H.), known as ‘Mukhlis’, is one of India's great Hindu poets and writers. Apart from Diwan poems, his important writings in various fields of lexicography, biography writing, chronicle writing, memoir writing, and travelogue writing have been left by him. Mukhlis’ Diwan is a collection of his Persian poems and Rekhta, manuscripts of which are kept in Reza Library (Rampur, India), Moulana Azad Library (Aligarh, India), and British Museum Library (London), and the authors have corrected it and added notes on it. In his Diwan, there is the use of some Indian words that are less common in other people's poems, as well as the use of some Persian and Arabic words with a meaning other than what is common in Iranian Persian, and the reflection of some Indian customs. In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate and report the reflection of such words and rituals in the Mukhlis’ poems and to answer the question of how much India and the Indian culture is reflected in the Persian poems of this Persian-speaking Indian Hindu poet. This research is applied in the direction of lexicography, cultural research, and lexicology in the Indian and Persian languages and literature. Introduction Rai Rayan Anand Ram Lahori, mostly referred to as "Anand Ram Mukhlis" in the books of biography and history, was sometimes separated from Mukhlis Kashani by the name of Mukhlis Lahori. In poetry, he was a student of Mirza Abdul Qadir Bedil (d. 1720) - the pinnacle of Indian style - and also one of the students and then one of the very close friends and companions of Siraj ul Din Ali Khan Arezoo (d. 1756) - a well-known Indian poet, writer, and scientist. He had strong ties with other poets and scientists of his time, especially Hazin Lahiji (d. 1766 AD). His works are Diwan Poems, Mirat ul Istelah, Chamanistan Sokhn, Roqaat, Karname Eshgh, Hangameh Eshgh, Pari Khane, Badaye va Vaqaye, Tazkerat ul Shoara, Savane ul Ahval, Rahat ul Afras. Mukhlis’ Diwan is a collection of Persian poems written by him. His compositions include 500 sonnets, 150 quatrains, several historical articles with historical values, and several scattered verses in the Urdu language. It is no wonder a poet like Mukhlis, whose mother language and culture are Indian, and Persian language and culture is his second language and culture, sometimes uses the words of his native language in his Persian poems, especially where his words are inspired by his native culture. It is on this basis that not only Indian Persian speakers but also Iranian Persian speakers who went to India, sometimes used Indian words in their compositions. However, some people did not like this work and did not consider it correct, and this point of view became the subject of debates about the legitimacy or wrongness of this method. Khan Arezoo made the twenty-seventh chapter of his book Mosmer for this special discussion and issued a fatwa on its authenticity. However, he considered it to be too much and he considered excesses to be unacceptable (Mosmer, p. 153). As he spoke in 28 chapters about the manipulations of Persian speakers in Indian vocabulary and Mukhlis, who is Arezoo's student, he repeated the teacher's fatwa in Mirat ul Istelah and considered the injustice to be characteristic of unripe and novices: Some loved ones believe that it is not right to use Indian words in Persian poems, don’t accept; because these things are straiting (sic.) for the unbelievers and beginners, and the people of power and talent are free... (Mukhlis-Lahori, p. 418, 447) Based on this belief, Mukhlis used Indian words in his poems without going too far, especially in places where his speech was based on Indian culture and there was no word to express it in Persian. Apart from these, there are some Persian words in his speech that are either not used in Iranian Persian or are used in other meanings; therefore, they can be misleading and deceptive for Iranians. It should be mentioned that such usages also arose from the fact that Persian is his second language and not from the language of ordinary people, i.e. the original speakers, who learned more from books and the language of poets and writers, and this is the background to Persian in vocabulary. Also, in the structure, sometimes changes are found in Iranian Farsi. The transformations open the way for protest and criticism of some Persian writers and on the other hand, some consider him innocent in these transformations. Because whoever learns the language not by hearing and from the language of normal and common speakers, but by analogy and from books and diwan, will inevitably undergo some transformations. Since there is no space to examine this debate here, we will leave it in its place and skip it by mentioning a report by Khan Arezoo in Mosmer: Some of the poets of India said to one of the poets of Iran: Mullah! You have learned Farsi from your elders and your teachers like Khaqani and Anwari (Arezoo, p. 31). Materials and Methods: In this research, our main sources are the manuscripts of Diwan Mukhlis of Lahore. We have given the complete and correct definitions of these words in three different sections (i.e. Indian vocabulary, Farsi or Arabic words with different or unusual meanings, and Indian customs after extracting Indian or Persian and Arabic words that have different and unusual meanings using inductive and library methods, especially using dictionaries and words. Research Findings The results of the study show that sometimes the same words have different meanings in two different languages, and this issue has been evident in the Diwan of Mukhlis Lahori. The traces of the poet's native language and native culture are always evident in writing poetry in a second language, and this is also the case in the Diwan of Mukhlis Lahori. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that: Mukhlis Lahori, a Persian-speaking Indian Hindu, one of the worthy students of Bedil Dehlavi and Khan Arezoo, was a capable poet and writer who has made the Persian language and culture forever indebted to him with the useful and important works he created in various fields. Since he is sincerely Hindu and Indian when he composes and writes in Farsi, consciously or unconsciously, he takes advantage of his native words and culture and puts them in his Farsi poems. Since Indian Farsi has differences from Iranian Farsi and Mukhlis learned Persian mostly from Persian texts and not from natives of Iran. Sometimes in his words, he uses words that are characteristic of literary and ancient Persian texts and in standard Persian. Iranians do not use these words in everyday language There are differences in the meanings of some words in Persian and Hindi, thus knowledge is necessary for a better understanding of the sincere poetry of Lahori and his contemporaries.

https://rpll.ui.ac.ir/article_27552_bead2edbfeded971754241de325e87de.pdf

University of Isfahan Textual Criticism of Persian Literature 2476-3268 15 2 2023 06 22 Studying Modality Based on Palmer’s Theory in Three Stories of Shahnameh: Fereydun’s Monarchy, Battle of Rostam and Esfandiyar, and Yazdegerd’s Monarchy Studying Modality Based on Palmer’s Theory in Three Stories of Shahnameh: Fereydun’s Monarchy, Battle of Rostam and Esfandiyar, and Yazdegerd’s Monarchy 57 80 27605 10.22108/rpll.2023.134919.2139 FA Maryam Bbakhtiari PhD in Persian Language and Literature, Department of Persian Literature, Faculty of Literature and Foreign Languages, AlZahra University, Tehran, Iran Mehdi Nikmanesh Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Department of Persian Literature, Faculty of Literature and Foreign Languages, AlZahra University, Tehran, Iran Nasrin Faghih Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Department of Persian Literature, Faculty of Literature and Foreign Languages, AlZahra University, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2022 09 07 Abstract Modality is a semantic and grammatical category for the demonstration of the realis and irrealis worlds. It is the expression of speakers’ beliefs and mental realities on the proposition and its content evaluation. Palmer divides modality into ‘propositional modality’ and ‘event modality’. The propositional modality includes two modes of ‘epistemic’ and ‘evidential’, and the event modality consists of ‘deontic’ and ‘dynamic’ modes. Every language uses various grammatical and semantic modal operators in transforming concepts. In the present study, we investigated the linguistic modal structures and markers as well as the meaning and context in the three stories of Shahnameh (i.e. Fereydun’s Monarchy, Battle of Rostam and Esfandiyar, and Yazdegerd’s Monarchy) based on Palmer’s theory. Different modes of modality include speculative, assurance, conditionals, all types of reports, necessity, commissive and threat, wishes and fears, presuppositions, interrogative and negative statements, implication and assertion in the structures like perceptual and cognitive verbs, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, allusion, and in the sentences expressing a general and acceptable concept such as idioms. Here, considering the setting is very important in conveying concepts of modality. The linguistic devices in these three stories are divided into three groups based on their frequencies: verbs (56%); nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (27%); and prepositions (17%). Introduction Language is an instrument for communication and transforming meanings and thoughts from one mind to the other. Linguistics is the science of studying language. Modality is one of the important categories in linguistics. The connection of ontological concepts with the human mind is demonstrated in the language by means of various signs. The realis and the irrealis in the world are converted into patterns the same as the mental presuppositions and propositions in relation to human’s inner and outer worlds. Through speaking, humans put these mental patterns into words in different ways. These patterns include a vast majority of meanings such as assertion, non-assertion, certainty, ambiguity, supposition, probability, and possibility on the propositional content of the speakers’ opinions. In the process of speaking or writing, people express the degree of probability, possibility, and/or certainty based on their own intentions. Speakers may express their statements with hesitation and doubt by using a particular grammatical structure. Studying all of these topics relates to modality, especially regarding form and meaning. The history of the study of form goes back to the period of Greek philosophers such as Aristotle. Aristotle is among the people who raised issues such as necessity, possibility, and impossibility. These topics are the basis of today’s rational logic. This discussion covers a wide range of topics in the philosophy of language (worlds of language) and semantics. Many researchers have addressed this issue with a grammatical-semantic perspective Materials and Methods Since modality is a semantic category, not only grammatical markers but also context and meaning should be taken into consideration. Shahnameh is one of the classic stories that is full of miscellaneous scenes and characters. This made Shahnameh a suitable text for studying all types of modal markers. In this study, three stories of Shahnameh (i.e. Fereydun’s Monarchy, Battle of Rostam and Esfandiyar, and Yazdegerd’s Monarchy) have been selected from the mythical, the athletic, and the historical aspects. The verses have been recorded according to the copy by Jalal Khaleghi Motlagh (2015). Research Findings The results of the study show that linguistic devices in these three stories are divided into three groups based on their frequencies: verbs (56%); nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (27%); and prepositions (17%). Various types of modal markers were observed in the forms of verbs, adverbs, adjectives, semi-sentences, phrases, and allusions for different types of modality including epistemic, evidential, deontic, and their sub-types. Some of these modal devices are the allusions that have been used for the epistemic or deontic modes. Interrogative statements are used rarely for asking questions; rather, the application of this type of modality is consistent with the epic scenes of these stories in which there is no opportunity for asking questions and contemplating. However, interrogative statements have been used for motivation and encouragement in order to reach a given goal. They might also be used for reprimand, reproach, and sarcasm. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Considering the results of the study, those idioms or statements which have been proven with repeated experiences are the subsets of the epistemic modality with high assurance. Sometimes, hesitation and anxiety are expressed by subsequent ifs which can be a marker for showing this mode. Evidential statements are more of a report type, and the next order is the interpretation of signs (dreams, astrology). To conclude, studying context, meaning, and the linguistic modal structures and markers in the three stories of Shahnameh based on Palmer’s theory indicated that not only formal markers suggest modality but also space, context, and meaning can express modes of modality. Abstract Modality is a semantic and grammatical category for the demonstration of the realis and irrealis worlds. It is the expression of speakers’ beliefs and mental realities on the proposition and its content evaluation. Palmer divides modality into ‘propositional modality’ and ‘event modality’. The propositional modality includes two modes of ‘epistemic’ and ‘evidential’, and the event modality consists of ‘deontic’ and ‘dynamic’ modes. Every language uses various grammatical and semantic modal operators in transforming concepts. In the present study, we investigated the linguistic modal structures and markers as well as the meaning and context in the three stories of Shahnameh (i.e. Fereydun’s Monarchy, Battle of Rostam and Esfandiyar, and Yazdegerd’s Monarchy) based on Palmer’s theory. Different modes of modality include speculative, assurance, conditionals, all types of reports, necessity, commissive and threat, wishes and fears, presuppositions, interrogative and negative statements, implication and assertion in the structures like perceptual and cognitive verbs, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, allusion, and in the sentences expressing a general and acceptable concept such as idioms. Here, considering the setting is very important in conveying concepts of modality. The linguistic devices in these three stories are divided into three groups based on their frequencies: verbs (56%); nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (27%); and prepositions (17%). Introduction Language is an instrument for communication and transforming meanings and thoughts from one mind to the other. Linguistics is the science of studying language. Modality is one of the important categories in linguistics. The connection of ontological concepts with the human mind is demonstrated in the language by means of various signs. The realis and the irrealis in the world are converted into patterns the same as the mental presuppositions and propositions in relation to human’s inner and outer worlds. Through speaking, humans put these mental patterns into words in different ways. These patterns include a vast majority of meanings such as assertion, non-assertion, certainty, ambiguity, supposition, probability, and possibility on the propositional content of the speakers’ opinions. In the process of speaking or writing, people express the degree of probability, possibility, and/or certainty based on their own intentions. Speakers may express their statements with hesitation and doubt by using a particular grammatical structure. Studying all of these topics relates to modality, especially regarding form and meaning. The history of the study of form goes back to the period of Greek philosophers such as Aristotle. Aristotle is among the people who raised issues such as necessity, possibility, and impossibility. These topics are the basis of today’s rational logic. This discussion covers a wide range of topics in the philosophy of language (worlds of language) and semantics. Many researchers have addressed this issue with a grammatical-semantic perspective Materials and Methods Since modality is a semantic category, not only grammatical markers but also context and meaning should be taken into consideration. Shahnameh is one of the classic stories that is full of miscellaneous scenes and characters. This made Shahnameh a suitable text for studying all types of modal markers. In this study, three stories of Shahnameh (i.e. Fereydun’s Monarchy, Battle of Rostam and Esfandiyar, and Yazdegerd’s Monarchy) have been selected from the mythical, the athletic, and the historical aspects. The verses have been recorded according to the copy by Jalal Khaleghi Motlagh (2015). Research Findings The results of the study show that linguistic devices in these three stories are divided into three groups based on their frequencies: verbs (56%); nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (27%); and prepositions (17%). Various types of modal markers were observed in the forms of verbs, adverbs, adjectives, semi-sentences, phrases, and allusions for different types of modality including epistemic, evidential, deontic, and their sub-types. Some of these modal devices are the allusions that have been used for the epistemic or deontic modes. Interrogative statements are used rarely for asking questions; rather, the application of this type of modality is consistent with the epic scenes of these stories in which there is no opportunity for asking questions and contemplating. However, interrogative statements have been used for motivation and encouragement in order to reach a given goal. They might also be used for reprimand, reproach, and sarcasm. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Considering the results of the study, those idioms or statements which have been proven with repeated experiences are the subsets of the epistemic modality with high assurance. Sometimes, hesitation and anxiety are expressed by subsequent ifs which can be a marker for showing this mode. Evidential statements are more of a report type, and the next order is the interpretation of signs (dreams, astrology). To conclude, studying context, meaning, and the linguistic modal structures and markers in the three stories of Shahnameh based on Palmer’s theory indicated that not only formal markers suggest modality but also space, context, and meaning can express modes of modality.

https://rpll.ui.ac.ir/article_27605_0f94a5aa5f71538aa8822ad3711f8607.pdf

University of Isfahan Textual Criticism of Persian Literature 2476-3268 15 2 2023 06 22 Meaningful Structure and Worldview in Mehr va Mah Poem Based on Lucien Goldman's Theory of Developmental Constructionism Meaningful Structure and Worldview in Mehr va Mah Poem Based on Lucien Goldman's Theory of Developmental Constructionism 81 100 27461 10.22108/rpll.2022.134913.2133 FA Rana Kiani PhD Candidate, Department of Persian Language and Literature. Faculty of Literature and Humanities. University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Mohammadreza Nasresfahani Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature. Faculty of Literature and Humanities. University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Journal Article 2022 08 29 Abstract In the 20th century, Lucien Goldman proposed one of the most effective theories in the field of sociological criticism, namely the theory of developmental constructionism. Among Goldman's central concepts to explain this theory are the two concepts of ‘meaningful structure’ and ‘worldview’. The meaningful structure shows the interrelationship of the components of a literary work and the worldview of a meaningful whole of norms and values. One of the works that the application of the theory of developmental constructionism is useful in its better understanding is Mehr va Mah poem, due to having a coherent structural pattern. This poem is one of the outstanding works of the 10th-century poet Jamali Dehlavi. In this regard, the present study seeks to answer the question of how the meaningful structure and worldview of Mehr va Mah is in line with the inclusive social platforms of the work. Examining this poem in the framework of the theory of developmental constructivism shows that the main social bases of the poet's era in the conceptual system, spatial elements, the systematic pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the system are the creators of its meaningful structure. They have appeared as artistic creations - not a mirror reflection of social events. These elements in a dialectic relationship with each other show the worldview governing the work. Introduction The current research seeks to answer the question of how the meaningful structure and worldview of the Mehr va Mah poem have been created, in accordance with the social foundations of this work. Based on the hypothesis of this research, despite the fact that this poem tells the story of the love between the prince of Badakhshan and the daughter of the king of Mulk Mina, and the poet did not directly reflect the social situation in this story, but the poet's imagination has created a coherent structure that is compatible with the social contexts of the time of creation. During the creation of the poem, the spiritual, social, and economic bases of Muslims compared to believers in other popular religions in India, especially Hindus, were considered superior. And this issue has caused the formation of a bipolar system of values in the society of the poet. In this poem, many contrasts were created in the conceptual system, spatial elements, the pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the work, which structurally shows the worldview that governs the work. Also, the spread of mysticism and the mutual relationship between the government and mystics during the compilation of this poem played a significant role in the formation of the components that make up the meaningful structure and worldview of the work. Materials and Methods The general method of this research is based on theoretical and library studies. Moreover, the works of Lucien Goldman and articles and books related to his theory are the bases of this study. Research Findings In Mehr va Mah poem, despite the fact that the romantic theme and mystical references of the work are the basis for the combination of opposite categories, due to the adaptation of the conceptual system of the work to the social ideological structure, there is no room for mixing and intermingling of categories. The structure of the spatial relations of the story has been manifested in the form of heaven-like and hell-like places. In other words, all the places in this poem have been compared to the final position of the Sharia-compliant or infidels in Islamic ideology. The expansion of the influence of the sheikhs and mystical dynasties among the general public and the ruling class has been one of the characteristics of the society in the given time frame. The structure of human relationships that arose after these relationships has caused the formation of a systematic network of relationships between the characters in this poem. This network of communication is established between the king and the mystic along with other human relationships. In this poem, social contradictions, religious conflicts and ideologies are manifested not in their direct expression during the theme and content of the story, but in the description of nature, characters, and various phenomena. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Mehr va Mah poem, like literary works that have unity and richness, has a coherent structural pattern emerging from the social foundations of the work. According to Goldman's point of view, in this narrative system, the ruling worldview has been formed through the coherent structure of the conceptual system, spatial elements, the systematic pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the work. With respect to the meaningful structure of the conceptual system, the system of dual oppositions of concepts in Mehr va Mah poem forms a part of the meaningful structure of this work, because the basic concepts of this work are all opposed to each other in a bipolar axis. Emphasizing that the protagonist is a Muslim, the poet has implicitly placed all his events and bitter encounters with existence in the other pole, i.e. disbelief, through descriptions and similes. Moreover, the contrasting structure of spatial elements in this poem has formed a coherent whole in accordance with the ideological structure of the inclusive social platform, on the basis of which the places are divided into the Islamic utopia, heaven, and the infidels' punishment place, hell. In this work, the pattern of character relationships is formed based on the model of human relations between the institution of power and the institution of Sufism in the society of the poet's time. When the poet has tied his emotions and feelings to the element of fantasy, he has established a dialectical relationship between the aesthetic structure of the work and the two pervasive social contexts of his time. the rhetorical aspects of the poem are actually a coherent expression of religious contrasts and the prevalence of mysticism in the society of the poet's work when describing the lover, nature, elements, and different situations. Abstract In the 20th century, Lucien Goldman proposed one of the most effective theories in the field of sociological criticism, namely the theory of developmental constructionism. Among Goldman's central concepts to explain this theory are the two concepts of ‘meaningful structure’ and ‘worldview’. The meaningful structure shows the interrelationship of the components of a literary work and the worldview of a meaningful whole of norms and values. One of the works that the application of the theory of developmental constructionism is useful in its better understanding is Mehr va Mah poem, due to having a coherent structural pattern. This poem is one of the outstanding works of the 10th-century poet Jamali Dehlavi. In this regard, the present study seeks to answer the question of how the meaningful structure and worldview of Mehr va Mah is in line with the inclusive social platforms of the work. Examining this poem in the framework of the theory of developmental constructivism shows that the main social bases of the poet's era in the conceptual system, spatial elements, the systematic pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the system are the creators of its meaningful structure. They have appeared as artistic creations - not a mirror reflection of social events. These elements in a dialectic relationship with each other show the worldview governing the work. Introduction The current research seeks to answer the question of how the meaningful structure and worldview of the Mehr va Mah poem have been created, in accordance with the social foundations of this work. Based on the hypothesis of this research, despite the fact that this poem tells the story of the love between the prince of Badakhshan and the daughter of the king of Mulk Mina, and the poet did not directly reflect the social situation in this story, but the poet's imagination has created a coherent structure that is compatible with the social contexts of the time of creation. During the creation of the poem, the spiritual, social, and economic bases of Muslims compared to believers in other popular religions in India, especially Hindus, were considered superior. And this issue has caused the formation of a bipolar system of values in the society of the poet. In this poem, many contrasts were created in the conceptual system, spatial elements, the pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the work, which structurally shows the worldview that governs the work. Also, the spread of mysticism and the mutual relationship between the government and mystics during the compilation of this poem played a significant role in the formation of the components that make up the meaningful structure and worldview of the work. Materials and Methods The general method of this research is based on theoretical and library studies. Moreover, the works of Lucien Goldman and articles and books related to his theory are the bases of this study. Research Findings In Mehr va Mah poem, despite the fact that the romantic theme and mystical references of the work are the basis for the combination of opposite categories, due to the adaptation of the conceptual system of the work to the social ideological structure, there is no room for mixing and intermingling of categories. The structure of the spatial relations of the story has been manifested in the form of heaven-like and hell-like places. In other words, all the places in this poem have been compared to the final position of the Sharia-compliant or infidels in Islamic ideology. The expansion of the influence of the sheikhs and mystical dynasties among the general public and the ruling class has been one of the characteristics of the society in the given time frame. The structure of human relationships that arose after these relationships has caused the formation of a systematic network of relationships between the characters in this poem. This network of communication is established between the king and the mystic along with other human relationships. In this poem, social contradictions, religious conflicts and ideologies are manifested not in their direct expression during the theme and content of the story, but in the description of nature, characters, and various phenomena. Discussion of Results and Conclusions Mehr va Mah poem, like literary works that have unity and richness, has a coherent structural pattern emerging from the social foundations of the work. According to Goldman's point of view, in this narrative system, the ruling worldview has been formed through the coherent structure of the conceptual system, spatial elements, the systematic pattern of character relationships and the aesthetic field of the work. With respect to the meaningful structure of the conceptual system, the system of dual oppositions of concepts in Mehr va Mah poem forms a part of the meaningful structure of this work, because the basic concepts of this work are all opposed to each other in a bipolar axis. Emphasizing that the protagonist is a Muslim, the poet has implicitly placed all his events and bitter encounters with existence in the other pole, i.e. disbelief, through descriptions and similes. Moreover, the contrasting structure of spatial elements in this poem has formed a coherent whole in accordance with the ideological structure of the inclusive social platform, on the basis of which the places are divided into the Islamic utopia, heaven, and the infidels' punishment place, hell. In this work, the pattern of character relationships is formed based on the model of human relations between the institution of power and the institution of Sufism in the society of the poet's time. When the poet has tied his emotions and feelings to the element of fantasy, he has established a dialectical relationship between the aesthetic structure of the work and the two pervasive social contexts of his time. the rhetorical aspects of the poem are actually a coherent expression of religious contrasts and the prevalence of mysticism in the society of the poet's work when describing the lover, nature, elements, and different situations.

https://rpll.ui.ac.ir/article_27461_a6853b322d510d3c83276fa743b7bac5.pdf

University of Isfahan Textual Criticism of Persian Literature 2476-3268 15 2 2023 06 22 New and Unknown Military Words in Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah New and Unknown Military Words in Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah 101 114 27505 10.22108/rpll.2023.135625.2157 FA Hamid Pooladi Department of General Lessons and English Language, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran. Hossein Aligholizadeh Department of Persian Literature and the English Language, General Teaching Center, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. Journal Article 2022 11 05 Abstract Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, the valuable work of Fakhr Modabber, is the oldest known Persian text on war etiquette. Considering the age of this work and its inclusion of unknown military words and terms, many of which have Indian roots, it is an undeniable necessity to review this book in terms of terminology and semantics. By studying the book with a lexicographical approach, it became clear that many of these words have not been explained in any sources; therefore, in the present study, some newfound military words are extracted, introduced, and analyzed. The first step in our exploration is to study Adab al-Harb and to extract unrecorded words in the field of the mentioned issues. In the next step, by a library study method and searching in various related sources, pieces of evidence if any, were collected. In the final step, some words were analyzed and their identities were revealed, and some due to the obviousness of their meanings or the lack of sufficient information, which includes more than fifty words, were just introduced. In general, all these words are new and none of them have been recorded in a dictionary. The words are introduced here for the first time. Introduction Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, written in the 7th century AH, is one of the most important books related to the etiquette of war. This book has 34 chapters: “but the title of this book does not fit with all of its chapters, and almost half of it is in politics of governance and has no connection with war and war tools” (Afshari, 2018, p. 19). Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah may be considered the most specialized book in the Persian language on the militarism subject, whose author deals with specific military issues by mentioning numerous historical stories. Considering that this book was written in the Indian subcontinent, it is full of Indian words, most of which are related to the military field; “Mobarakshah’s prose is very fluent and masterful, and his language is full of oriental elements of Iranian dialects, and for this reason, the remaining manuscripts of it, have many scribal errors” (Safa, 1990, p. 1170). Of course, the identity and meaning of many of them remain unknown until now; therefore, the authors have introduced, reviewed, and analyzed some of these words in this study. Materials and Methods This study is basic research about the words of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah. In the first step, many unknown words were extracted by examining and comprehensively studying the text of the book. In the next step, by exploring the sources, it was ensured that these words were not registered. In the next step, evidence and data were collected by a library study and scanning of various Persian texts, and also, using different corpus-oriented software and text-oriented corpora. Based on these findings and with the approach of examining the use of the word in the text and the context of the speech and logical reasoning, the meaning of these words was deduced and analyzed. Research Findings Parvin It is a type of formation of the army against the enemy during war, and its name is derived from the constellation ‘Parvin’. JeggarAndaz One of the special military units, who had used a type of weapon called ‘Jeggar’. Jowaldooz/Nimjovaldooz ‘Jowaldooz’ is a projectile weapon that was used in special Castle wars. Chakh It was a type of thick skin that was used to cover the shield and make sheaths for swords and knives and the like. DahMarde It is the name of the weapon that was used to open the Castle. Bahram’s Tailpiece It is one of the three main methods of holding the Tailpiece of the Bow, which is attributed to Bahram Gur. Shooshak/Sooshak The word is a name of a kind of shield, which is made from soft and flexible tree horns. Caruri It refers to the name of a kind of Bow, which is attributed to ‘Karur’ (the name of a city near Sindh). Karveh It is the name of a tool that was used in special Castle wars. Gazeh According to the text of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, it can be said that ‘Gazeh’ is the point of connection and locking of the arrow with the arrowhead. MardGir It was a spear with a crooked head that was used to grab and pull fighters down from the castle. Semilunar It is a type of formation of the army against the enemy during war, which is specific to Iranians and its name is derived from the shape of the new moon. Unexplained Weapons A number of words are mentioned in two groups for introduction and registration in dictionaries: a group of words whose meanings are clear from their appearance and name, and another group of words that, unfortunately, despite extensive searching in various sources, no information was found about them. Conclusion It can be said that most of the military words and terms of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah are related to the Indian subcontinent, which, although used in some Persian texts, have remained obsolete and abandoned today. The author is very creative in using these words. Moreover, despite the valuable efforts of Soheili Khansari, the proofreader of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, the publication of this book has many errors and its re-correction is clearly necessary. Abstract Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, the valuable work of Fakhr Modabber, is the oldest known Persian text on war etiquette. Considering the age of this work and its inclusion of unknown military words and terms, many of which have Indian roots, it is an undeniable necessity to review this book in terms of terminology and semantics. By studying the book with a lexicographical approach, it became clear that many of these words have not been explained in any sources; therefore, in the present study, some newfound military words are extracted, introduced, and analyzed. The first step in our exploration is to study Adab al-Harb and to extract unrecorded words in the field of the mentioned issues. In the next step, by a library study method and searching in various related sources, pieces of evidence if any, were collected. In the final step, some words were analyzed and their identities were revealed, and some due to the obviousness of their meanings or the lack of sufficient information, which includes more than fifty words, were just introduced. In general, all these words are new and none of them have been recorded in a dictionary. The words are introduced here for the first time. Introduction Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, written in the 7th century AH, is one of the most important books related to the etiquette of war. This book has 34 chapters: “but the title of this book does not fit with all of its chapters, and almost half of it is in politics of governance and has no connection with war and war tools” (Afshari, 2018, p. 19). Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah may be considered the most specialized book in the Persian language on the militarism subject, whose author deals with specific military issues by mentioning numerous historical stories. Considering that this book was written in the Indian subcontinent, it is full of Indian words, most of which are related to the military field; “Mobarakshah’s prose is very fluent and masterful, and his language is full of oriental elements of Iranian dialects, and for this reason, the remaining manuscripts of it, have many scribal errors” (Safa, 1990, p. 1170). Of course, the identity and meaning of many of them remain unknown until now; therefore, the authors have introduced, reviewed, and analyzed some of these words in this study. Materials and Methods This study is basic research about the words of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah. In the first step, many unknown words were extracted by examining and comprehensively studying the text of the book. In the next step, by exploring the sources, it was ensured that these words were not registered. In the next step, evidence and data were collected by a library study and scanning of various Persian texts, and also, using different corpus-oriented software and text-oriented corpora. Based on these findings and with the approach of examining the use of the word in the text and the context of the speech and logical reasoning, the meaning of these words was deduced and analyzed. Research Findings Parvin It is a type of formation of the army against the enemy during war, and its name is derived from the constellation ‘Parvin’. JeggarAndaz One of the special military units, who had used a type of weapon called ‘Jeggar’. Jowaldooz/Nimjovaldooz ‘Jowaldooz’ is a projectile weapon that was used in special Castle wars. Chakh It was a type of thick skin that was used to cover the shield and make sheaths for swords and knives and the like. DahMarde It is the name of the weapon that was used to open the Castle. Bahram’s Tailpiece It is one of the three main methods of holding the Tailpiece of the Bow, which is attributed to Bahram Gur. Shooshak/Sooshak The word is a name of a kind of shield, which is made from soft and flexible tree horns. Caruri It refers to the name of a kind of Bow, which is attributed to ‘Karur’ (the name of a city near Sindh). Karveh It is the name of a tool that was used in special Castle wars. Gazeh According to the text of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, it can be said that ‘Gazeh’ is the point of connection and locking of the arrow with the arrowhead. MardGir It was a spear with a crooked head that was used to grab and pull fighters down from the castle. Semilunar It is a type of formation of the army against the enemy during war, which is specific to Iranians and its name is derived from the shape of the new moon. Unexplained Weapons A number of words are mentioned in two groups for introduction and registration in dictionaries: a group of words whose meanings are clear from their appearance and name, and another group of words that, unfortunately, despite extensive searching in various sources, no information was found about them. Conclusion It can be said that most of the military words and terms of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah are related to the Indian subcontinent, which, although used in some Persian texts, have remained obsolete and abandoned today. The author is very creative in using these words. Moreover, despite the valuable efforts of Soheili Khansari, the proofreader of Adab al-Harb va al-Shaja’ah, the publication of this book has many errors and its re-correction is clearly necessary.

https://rpll.ui.ac.ir/article_27505_d928044084061ed8707267e85469267a.pdf